Messages in the Dark: The Italian and Dutch Baroque

 

Messages in the Dark: 

The Italian and Dutch Baroque

J.M. Rogers

. . .

 


The theme of allegory in Baroque art has its roots in mannerism, with its plethora of inferred meanings and grand gestures gracing the frescoes of a host of Italian chapels. However, the infusion of tenebrism by Italian and Dutch artists during The baroque period allowed for deeper, more immersive narratives that engaged the viewer's mind in new ways. This shift is seen time and again through the masterful works of Caravaggio, Artemisia Gentileschi, Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer and Jan Steen, to name a few. The mundane is transformed into the thought-provoking through the use of dynamic lighting effects and the portrayal of everyday people; such as in Johannes Vermeer’s A Maid Asleep or in Artemisia Gentileschi’s Self Portrait as an Allegory of a Painter. Portraits were not the only works to invoke deeper meaning, though, as the highly symbolic paintings of Ruisdael and Breughel captured the beauty and serenity of nature in order to convey complex correlations between subject matter and everyday life. This defines a turning point in art as a form of expression. Rather than simply recreating overt religious scenes for wealthy, church-based patrons, artists throughout Europe began creating paintings for private collectors. Thus, the Baroque was a period of cultural expansion in which artists in Europe began to create original works that invited the viewer to consider the deeper meaning of allegorical subject matter as it applied to aspects of their everyday lives.

The way these allegorical meanings were conveyed was influenced largely by the arrival of Caravaggio in Rome in 1593. “Caravaggio was credited by his early biographers with introducing two radical working procedures to enhance the effect of reality: painting his pictures directly from posed models and illuminating the models with directed light from a high source.”[1]  This use of light became one of the defining characteristics of the Baroque period. By using large areas of shadow to contrast the illuminated focal points of the invisible complement, a complex depth of field and narrative was accomplished. And while its origins were in the south, the influence of Caravaggio and tenebrism spread across Europe. One needs only to look upon the beautiful still-life compositions of Jan Brueghel, the Elder, to see the influence. His painting Flowers in a Wooden Vessel showcases the trademark black backdrop with the arrangement of flowers illuminated by an off-screen source of light.

That is not to say that the paintings or the themes that were prevalent among artists in Italy and Amsterdam was the same. “A more austere Baroque style dominated northern Europe in the seventeenth century.”[2] And while still-life portraits did carry a certain shadowed quality, they were not meant to be interpreted as grim or foreboding. Rather, they were created to be aesthetic works of beauty that represented a celebration of their land, their people, and their customs. A painting such as Judith Beheading Holofernes by Artemisia Gentileschi would have no doubt seemed perverse and downright scary amongst the pastoral scenes of Bentheim Castle; a painting that demonstrates Ruisdael’s “naturalistic compositions and style of representing massive forms and his color range.”[3] Tenebrism may have extended north from Italy, but neither the impassioned religious subject matter nor flair for the dramatic did.

Dutch society was Calvinist in origin, and Calvinist churches cared little for the type of graphic depictions that generations of famed Italian artists produced. This ideological divide between the northern and southern religious concepts shaped the art produced in these areas significantly. In the south, religious themes dominated the artistic milieu. Whether it be The Calling of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio or the sculpture David by Bernini, the Christian theme is displayed in a striking fashion that utilizes the invisible complement to probe the viewer’s mind. In the north, however, religious paintings represented only a small portion of the artwork produced. Instead, Dutch paintings focused on material possessions, nature, and the everyday happenings of Dutch life. The use of vanitas and symbolism within these paintings served as allegorical references to various religious and philosophical teachings tied to the Calvinist faith.

No greater contrast between personalities could be found than that between the passionate Gentileschi and the impassionate Rembrandt. His works, also influenced by Caravaggio utilized tenebrism to bring out the depth and dimension of Dutch patrons in portrait painting and group painting. Rembrandts’ works, such as An Anatomy Lesson by Dr. Tulip and Portrait of Herman Doomer are not emotional affairs but rather expert executions of artistry for a wealthy patron. This underlines the Dutch connection between art as a form of expression and art as a form of commerce. And, while artists like Jacob van Ruisdael and Johannes Vermeer sought to capture the quaint aspects of Dutch life in an artistic light, “Gentileschi refused to limit herself to portraits, still-lifes, and small devotional pictures; the staples of most women artists in the 16th and 17th centuries.”[4]  Rather, she “preferred biblical and mythological heroines and women who played major roles. She dramatized the stories of Susannah, Bathsheba, Lucretia, Cleopatra, Esther, Diana, and Potiphar’s wife”[5]  and gained renown for her skill in painting nudes. Inspired by Caravaggio, and being a Caravaggisti, her works employed his signature use of tenebrism and rich colors to create pieces with deep meanings; meanings tied to difficult personal lives and the role faith played in them.

While they achieved their goals in different ways, one pronounced, one subverted, northern and southern Baroque artists utilized mannerism, tenebrism, and everyday life to create allegorical works with deep and spiritual meanings. It is hard to imagine where humanist art would be today without the brilliance of Caravaggio’s lighting in portraiture or where landscape painting would be without the influence of Jacob van Ruisdael on future naturalist and impressionist artists. These artistic changes signify the growing depth of the human mind and its place in artistic expression. The thoughts that are provoked by the works of Breughel and Vermeer are thoughts that no doubt provoked the next generation of Dutch artists to explore their own thought-provoking subjects, just as the works of the Caravaggisti still stands as a golden standard of light and darkness for modern-day artists. And while we all marvel at the technical mastery exhibited in the Baroque period, the hidden messages within the paintings keep us coming back to search the brush strokes again and again for understanding.

 

 

Bibliography

 

Bos, Luuk. "Ruisdael, Jacob (Isaacksz.) van." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 2003. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

 Gash, John M. "Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da [Merisi, Michelangelo ]." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 28 May 2015. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

Harris, Ann S., and Judith W. Mann. "Gentileschi family." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 28 May 2015. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

Sayre, H. M. (2016). Discovering the Humanities (3rd ed., pp. 324-341). Boston, MA: Pearson.


[1]  Gash, John M. "Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da [Merisi, Michelangelo ]." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 28 May 2015. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

[2] Sayre, H. M. (2016). Discovering the Humanities (3rd ed., pp. 333). Boston, MA: Pearson

[3] Bos, Luuk. "Ruisdael, Jacob (Isaacksz.) van." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 2003. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

[4] Harris, Ann S., and Judith W. Mann. "Gentileschi family." Oxford Art Online. , edited by Dr. Judith Rodenbeck, Oxford University Press, 28 May 2015. Oxford Art Online. Accessed 27 Nov. 2018.

 

[5] Sayre, H. M. (2016). Discovering the Humanities (3rd ed., pp. 331). Boston, MA: Pearson.

 

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